More than 45 percent of Ethiopians live in the country's highlands, where population densities are very high. Over-population has contributed to land degradation, soil erosion, and deforestation, which are widespread problems. In turn, food shortages in the highlands of Ethiopia are endemic, and the threat of hunger is pervasive.

Ethiopia's geography is varied, ranging from mountains and deserts, to fertile valleys with plentiful rainfall. These diverse conditions call for different development strategies.

In some areas of Ethiopia, including large parts of the Amhara and Oromiya regions, agricultural extension programs have been very successful. By using fertilizers and improved varieties of seeds, farmers have substantially increased their crop yields, as well as household incomes. Research shows that these inputs, and access to credit, have often had a greater impact in lower rainfall areas than under high-rainfall conditions (drought-prone areas excepted).

Strategies for Drought-Prone Areas
Agricultural extension focused on fertilizers and improved seeds, however, has not been as successful in areas of the country that are plagued by drought, including much of Tigray. Soils are very degraded, and rainfall is inadequate.

In these dry land areas, there are many other promising opportunities to increase agricultural production and household incomes, while practicing sustainable use of natural resources. Some of the strategies that are particularly profitable include soil and water conservation measures, planting trees, small livestock production, development of non-farm activities, and improved management of community resources.

Soil and water conservation
Farmers in drought-prone areas do best when they focus on soil and water conservation measures, such as construction of stone terraces, reduced tillage and burning, and increased use of manure and compost. By conserving soil moisture, these land management practices significantly increase crop production, while slowing land degradation. Rates of return to investments in stone terraces in Tigray average at least as high as 25 percent.

Trees and bees
Planting trees also provides significant economic and ecological benefits for poor farmers. Household incomes increase, and soil degradation decreases. Eucalyptus trees, which are relatively fast growing, are particularly profitable in northern Ethiopia. Rates of return to farmers' investments in eucalyptus are often above 20 percent. Economic benefits are greatest when community wastelands-which are low quality and have few productive uses-are used for private tree planting. The environmental benefits are substantial because the trees are planted on degraded land.

Honey and beeswax are two key by-products of tree planting. They can be produced with relatively low-input, low-cost technologies. Ethiopia ranks fourth in the world in beeswax exports, and tenth in honey. If rural households can get these products to market, substantial opportunities exist to increase a family's income.

Animals on the farm, and vegetables to the market
Investing in livestock can also significantly increase household income. Raising chickens and beekeeping are particularly profitable ventures, with marginal rates of return averaging over 30 and 40 percent, respectively. Farmers who own cattle can also earn high returns and use resources sustainably with improved management practices.

Building and improving roads in areas that are well suited to the production of high-value or perishable crops could lead farmers to grow them, and substantially increase incomes. Research shows that being one hour closer to a road, and having improved access to a market, more than doubles a farmer's probability of relying on such crops for household income.

Managing communal resources
Decentralizing the management of common resources can also improve the welfare of both communities and individuals, and increase their access to them. Research on community grazing lands and woodlots shows that the more management is decentralized, the greater the gains to all users. When small groups manage woodlots and raise trees, for example, they invest less labor per hectare, give more attention to crucial tasks such as watering, and achieve higher rates of tree survival. Environmental benefits, such as declining soil erosion and increased biodiversity, also improve. These advantages suggest new opportunities for small highland groups to manage common resources traditionally administered by the government.

Conclusion
In the highlands, there are many potential pathways to development. Although different strategies are needed for different situations, investments in infrastructure, education, and agricultural research and extension are generally needed throughout the Ethiopian highlands. By investing wisely, significant inroads can be made in the fight against poverty, natural resource degradation, and inadequate agricultural production.

The highlands of East Africa are endowed with moderate temperatures, adequate rainfall, and productive soils that make the region one of the best suited for agricultural development in all of Africa. In Kenya, the central highlands are one of the most agriculturally productive parts of the country. Levels of poverty are considerably lower than in other rural areas, and agricultural productivity is significantly higher. Studies show that over the decades, living conditions and land quality have actually improved in parts of the central highlands, including in Embu and Machakos District.

Many farmers owe their improved livelihoods to the dairy sector, which is an important and successful enterprise throughout the densely populated highlands of central Kenya. Milk is an important part of the diet of both rural and urban Kenyans, and the demand for dairy is extremely high. Following liberalization of the sector in the mid-1990's, many new brands were developed by manufacturers. This growth further increased the demand for raw milk, and provided additional incentives for smallholder farmers to produce it. Dairy farmers in central Kenya also benefit greatly from their relative proximity to the large Nairobi market.

This successful pattern of productive and sustainable agricultural development in the central highlands of Kenya, however, is the exception, not the rule. Success stories in the East African highlands are few and far between, and poverty and resource degradation are the norm. Worse yet, the growing trend is a downward spiral of increasing population pressure and land degradation, declining agricultural production, and entrenched poverty.

Land degradation problems, such as soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and poor vegetative cover, are not only widespread, but they are also increasing. Studies show that much of the land degradation in the Kenyan highlands is due to poor land management practices. Unlike the relatively wealthy farmers of central Kenya, the poor invest little in soil management. Poor farmers also have fewer opportunities to obtain information and learn about appropriate technologies.

The case of the central highlands, however, indicates that it is possible to overcome widespread poverty and land degradation. Successful land use and land management strategies may be replicated in other areas of the highlands, or adapted to different environments. Although the agricultural options available to some communities are limited by physical and climatic conditions, many opportunities exist to improve livelihoods and promote sustainable use of natural resources through changes in land use.

Research from Kenya shows that some of the most successful development pathways include growing cash crops (including horticultural products), raising dairy cattle, and investing in woodlots. As in northern Ethiopia, planting eucalyptus trees is a particularly good way to increase household incomes. In areas where farmers grow significant amounts of traditional cash crops or horticultural crops, such as the central highlands, households earn approximately three times as much from crops and livestock as households in the western highlands, where farms are about the same size.

In the highlands, improving markets is key to increasing agricultural productivity-for crops, livestock, and tree-based products. Other important infrastructure, such as roads, also needs to be developed and improved. Market access is particularly critical for promoting the production of high-value agricultural activities, especially in more favorable climate zones. In areas where commercialization is strongest, farmers plant more high-value crops, and have higher farm incomes.

Government services are critical for promoting market development for important agricultural products. Assistance is needed to develop factories, establish infrastructure for quality control and export, build roads, and provide credit.

In less-favored areas, however, road development does not seem to have a significant impact on households that grow traditional cash crops. In these areas, additional farm and non-farm activities need to be developed to supplement cattle-raising and increase household incomes. Farmers also need to receive better information about the production and marketing of suitable crops.

Although appropriate land management strategies are key to reducing poverty and land degradation in the highlands of Kenya, these strategies are not narrow or rigid pathways to development. Agricultural technologies should be adapted for local use, and farmers should consider various land use options, including diversification. The pattern of intensification practiced in the central highlands, for example, is characterized by diversification, rather than specialization. In the smallholder highlands, the intensifying systems are often characterized by several commercial enterprises.

With the right set of policies, targeted for specific situations, hunger, poverty and environmental degradation can be reduced.

Land degradation, low and declining agricultural productivity, and poverty are severe and interrelated problems in Uganda. Declining soil fertility, which limits crop yields, is a particularly serious and widespread problem. Land management and land use policies and practices can plan an important role in alleviating hunger and poverty, while increasing agricultural productivity and the sustainable use of resources. Effective policies are particularly needed to tackle the land degradation problem, which is one of the greatest challenges to the modernization of Uganda's agriculture.

Uganda's soils were once considered to be among the most fertile in the tropics. But nutrient depletion, erosion, and other signs of land degradation are increasing. With two growing seasons a year, rates of depletion for crucial nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium are among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa.

Opportunities exist, however, to solve Uganda's soil fertility depletion problem, and increase agricultural productivity. The two broad approaches include use of inputs such as inorganic fertilizers, and use of low-cost technologies that recycle and add nutrients to the soil using locally available materials. Soil fertility may be restored through the use of manure, compost or mulch, or by growing leguminous cover crops and trees.

Research from eastern Uganda, for example, shows that fertilizer use can replenish loss nutrients and increase agricultural productivity, particularly on higher quality soil, where degradation is severe. Poor farmers who cannot afford expensive fertilizers, however, are unable to replenish their soils in this way, and suffer from higher levels of nutrient depletion. In these situations, low input technologies will be more effective in increasing farmer's yields and incomes, while reducing soil degradation.

Many farmers lack awareness about appropriate technologies, however, and this limits their ability to improve their land and their yields. Agricultural extension programs are effective in filling this information gap, according to research findings. Recipients of technical assistance programs are more apt to adopt improved land management practices, and research shows that their incomes increase, especially when they grow bananas, raise livestock, or engage in non-farm activities.

Improvements in roads and other infrastructure, and providing better market information to farmers, can also help improve land management and agricultural productivity. Research results suggest that it may be difficult-if not impossible-for farmers to halt land degradation if agricultural production is not sufficiently profitable. By helping to improve the efficiency and competitiveness of markets, improvements in infrastructure and market information can contribute to higher incomes and more sustainable land management.

Important policy options and strategies exist for achieving sustainable development. As in other areas of the East African highlands, however, no "one-size-fits-all" strategy will work in all areas of Uganda. Land management policies will be most effective when they take differences into account, and are linked with the comparative advantages of a particular area, or the unique situations of specific farmers.